From Extremist to Ex-Extremist: The Journey of Leaving Domestic Terrorism

• The FBI has seen a 357% increase in domestic violent extremism cases from 2013 to 2021, highlighting the growing threat of domestic terrorism.
• Domestic violent extremists have diverse motivations, which complicate efforts to predict and counter their actions.
• A new study reveals how former extremists often face significant identity struggles and must undergo a process of role exit and identity transformation to disengage from extremist groups.

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Background

Domestic violent extremism has become one of the most pressing terrorism threats in the United States and other Western countries. This form of radicalization is complex, persistent, and widespread, involving a mix of ideological positions, often referred to as ‘salad bar’ ideology. This means that extremists may draw from a variety of beliefs, making their motives and actions harder to predict and counter.

The Rising Threat

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has seen a significant increase in domestic violent extremism cases. From 2013 to 2021, open cases grew by 357%, from 1,981 to 9,049. As of November 2023, the FBI was conducting around 2,700 investigations related to domestic terrorism. These extremists fall into several main categories:

• Racially motivated violent extremism
• Anti-government or anti-authority extremism
• Animal rights or environmental extremism
• Abortion extremism

This diversity in extremist motivations presents unique challenges for researchers and the justice system, since these groups often operate with fragmented and limited hierarchical structures.

The Role of Identity in Extremism

Identity plays a crucial role in the process of radicalization and deradicalization. Research shows that disengaging from extremist groups involves significant struggles with identity. Former extremists often find it difficult to let go of their previous ideologies and must undergo a process of identity transformation. This transformation is influenced by various factors, including role strain and conflict, gender dynamics, and personal motivations.

Extremist identities are hierarchically arranged, meaning that individuals may prioritize their extremist role over other roles like being a parent or an employee. When these roles are in conflict, it can destabilize their sense of self. Desistance from extremist behavior often involves the individual seeking new social roles and support systems, which indicate a desire for change.

Role Exit as a Social Process

The process of leaving an extremist group can be understood through the concept of role exit, which involves several stages:

1. Initial Doubts: Individuals begin to question their commitment to the extremist role.
2. Seeking Alternatives: They explore other roles that might be available to them.
3. Turning Points: Significant life events or realizations make them reconsider their involvement in the extremist group.
4. Establishing an Ex-Role Identity: They actively work to form a new identity separate from their extremist past.

This process is driven by self-reflection and the realization that their idealized image of their extremist role does not match reality. Feelings of shame, guilt, and embarrassment often motivate them to change.

Gender Dynamics and Extremism

Gender dynamics also play a significant role within extremist groups. The opportunities and roles available to individuals can vary based on gender, influencing their involvement and the process of disengagement. Men and women may face different challenges and motivations when leaving extremist groups.

Methods

DeMichele et al. seek to fill a gap in research by examining how identity and role conflicts, along with negative emotional states, contribute to the adoption of a new (non-extremist) lifestyle. By conducting life-history interviews with individuals who were part of racially motivated and anti-government extremist groups, the study aims to provide a deeper understanding of the pathways to extremism and the processes involved in leaving these groups.

Participant Selection

To explore the process of leaving extremist groups, DeMichele et al. conducted life history interviews with former extremists. The process presented both challenges and opportunities. Initial contacts for the sample were made through various means, including:

• Prior research by the team with active and inactive extremists
• Identifying former extremists with a public presence (e.g., those in media, authors of books, public speakers)
• Referrals from project partners

This approach led to in-depth interviews with 47 former members of U.S. domestic violent extremist groups. To qualify for the study, individuals had to meet two criteria: they must have been a member of an extremist group in the U.S., and they must no longer be affiliated with any organized extremist group.

Interview Procedures

Before conducting the interviews, DeMichele et al. established rapport with participants and vetted them to ensure they fit the study’s criteria. Several interviewees were concerned about their past affiliations being revealed, which could lead to violence, legal issues, or social stigma.

• Most interviews were conducted in the participants’ current communities, spanning 24 states in the U.S. and two provinces in Canada.
• Interviews were conducted either by one or two authors using a semi-structured interview protocol in private settings, such as hotel rooms, homes, or workplaces.
• Sometimes, interviews continued in public spaces like restaurants, coffee shops, and parks.
• Each interview was audio recorded and transcribed, lasting between 6 and 8 hours, resulting in about 6,000 pages of transcriptions.

The interviews required flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances, such as location changes. DeMichele et al. aimed to gather information on sensitive topics, including participants’ involvement in violence, crime, substance abuse, and their experiences with trauma, neglect, and abuse. These interviews allowed the authors to construct detailed life histories of the former extremists.

To understand identity transformation, the authors asked emotionally probing questions, like “How did you feel after you hit that person?” or “What were you feeling when you used that racial slur?” These questions aimed to help interviewees relive their experiences and emotions, providing deeper insights into their cognitive and emotional states.

Data Analysis

DeMichele et al. employed a modified grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss 1967; Charmaz 2006; Berg 2007), which combines an open-ended, inductive method with guidance from existing literature and frameworks. This involved constant interaction with the data through several meetings and video conferences to identify social processes affecting each new round of interviews:

• Initial data coding involved reading entire transcripts line-by-line to identify differences and similarities across subjects.
• Deductive codes were derived from scholarly literature on extremism, group affiliation, disengagement, and related topics.
• After developing the initial codes, DeMichele et al. compared and contrasted data themes, examining relationships between them and moving back and forth between first-level data and general categories.

This iterative process helped refine their understanding of the social processes involved in leaving extremist groups.

Limitations

This study has several limitations.

• First, the retrospective nature of the interviews can be affected by memory distortion and selective recall (Baddeley 1979). Despite these challenges, the interviews offer valuable insights into the process of exiting extremist groups.
• Second, the generalizability of the findings to other types of extremist groups is uncertain. Nevertheless, applying existing theoretical frameworks helps juxtapose these findings with similar studies on identity change.

Future research should explore the relationship between negative emotional states and identity change further.

Results

The study included interviews with 32 men and 15 women who had been involved in extremist groups for an average of 8 years, with some having as little as 2 years and others up to 28 years of involvement:

• Most of the participants (58.8%) were married or living with a partner, and a significant majority (73.9%) had children.
• The majority identified as working or middle class (71.7%), and a high proportion (89.1%) had at least a high school education.
• However, chronic unemployment was reported by one-third of the participants (33.3%).

A considerable number of these former extremists had histories of criminal behavior and substance abuse:

• While most did not have current substance abuse issues (91.3%), many had previously abused substances, including alcohol, crack cocaine, and prescription drugs.
• Additionally, a substantial portion of the interviewees (76.1%) had been part of delinquent peer groups during their youth, and over half had experienced mental illness (54.3%) or suicidal thoughts (56.5%).
• Most had committed a mix of violent and property crimes (60.0%) and had been incarcerated (65.0%).

Initial Doubts and Turning Points

• Dennis, a 42-year-old former white supremacist, shared that his initial doubts about his extremist beliefs began when he saw his young daughter playing with a Nazi flag. This moment triggered a profound conflict between his identity as a father and his extremist beliefs. Despite his deep involvement in extremism, this event made him realize his desire for a better future for his children, sparking his journey towards leaving the movement. Dennis’s doubts grew, and he eventually sought solace in religion, adopting a new identity as a “prayer warrior.”
• Charlie, who had been involved in extremist groups for over 22 years, experienced a turning point while watching a TV show with his daughter. The show discussed environmental collapse on Easter Island, which made Charlie reflect on the broader implications of his extremist beliefs. This seemingly mundane event made him question the ideology he had dedicated his life to, leading to a gradual withdrawal from the movement. His realization emphasized the importance of humanity over racial divisions
• Frank, a 45-year-old former extremist, expressed his initial doubts as being more about the lack of direction and commitment within the groups he was involved with rather than the ideology itself. He moved from group to group, searching for one that matched his expectations. His disillusionment grew as he realized that these groups did not embody the elite status he sought, leading him to leave the movement.

Seeking Alternatives

As former extremists began to doubt their roles, they started evaluating alternative lifestyles. This process was not straightforward and often involved significant emotional turmoil. For many, the journey involved finding new social supports, reevaluating their beliefs, and confronting the shame and guilt associated with their past actions:

• Dennis’s journey out of extremism was marked by a pivotal moment when a friend invited him to church. This experience helped him realize the conflict between his roles as a father and an extremist, leading him to embrace a Christian identity. He described this transition as leaving behind not just an organization but his entire upbringing and identity, filled with guilt and shame for his past.
• Charlie’s turning point was a moment of self-reflection prompted by a television show. This event opened his mind to the possibility of change and helped him begin to see the world beyond the confines of his extremist ideology.

Former extremists often struggled to adapt to their new identities, grappling with the remnants of their past beliefs. The process of adopting a new role involved imagining possible future selves, balancing their aspirations with the realities of their social environment, and dealing with the emotional aftermath of their extremist involvement.

Conclusions

In summary, the journey out of extremism for many individuals involved a combination of initial doubts sparked by mundane events, a reevaluation of their roles and beliefs, and the search for a new, more positive identity. These findings highlight the complex and often non-linear process of disengaging from extremist groups and the importance of support systems in facilitating this transition.

The interviews conducted in this study offer deep insights into the micro-level processes involved in leaving extremist groups. By applying theories on identity change and Ebaugh’s (1988) stages of role exit, we can understand the complexities of this transformation. The interviewees shared key events that marked significant changes in their lives, leading them to question their role commitment and redefine their experiences and expectations.

Here are three key findings from this study:

1. Tensions Between Competing Identities

Many former extremists experienced conflicts between their extremist identity and their roles as parents, spouses, or productive members of society. These competing identities created significant internal tensions. As they sought to change, they interacted with environmental supports that reinforced a new, non-deviant identity. Many interviewees emphasized the importance of family responsibilities, such as raising children and maintaining marriages, as well as meeting parole requirements, as crucial motivations for leaving the movement.

Previous research on desistance from crime highlights that emotions like anger, depression, and shame, along with a lack of emotional support, are linked to criminal behavior and substance abuse (Giordano et al. 2002). In this study, negative emotions played a complex role, providing the energy needed to confront identity conflicts. These emotions opened individuals to the possibility of adopting new, positive identities and abandoning their extremist pasts.

2. Concerns About Future Possibilities

The study shows that concerns about future possibilities significantly influenced the decision to leave extremist groups. Giordano et al. (2002) focused on crime and drug use, and their model, along with Ebaugh’s (1988) framework, helps us understand the role exit process for extremist group members.

Dennis’s cognitive transformation, for instance, was not sudden but built up over time through events like seeing his daughter with a Nazi flag, concerns about his drinking, and attending church. These events created a confluence that allowed Dennis to reinterpret his life and opened a path for him to disengage from extremism.

3. Gradual Accumulation of Doubts

Doubts about extremist beliefs often start subtly but accumulate over time, leading to a conscious reevaluation of life choices. Some interviewees could pinpoint specific reasons for leaving, while others described a general sense of unease and fear that their commitment to extremism was misplaced. People naturally seek to verify and maintain their identities, often resisting change. However, as doubts grew, the interviewees began to seek alternatives, which provided the cognitive foundation for a self-reflective dialogue. This process allowed them to confront negative emotions and consider new, non-extremist identities.

What Can You Do?

Extremist group membership often provides individuals with a sense of pride and perceived power. Members feel racially awakened, informed, and important. Many interviewees described how they felt educated about race and became defenders of Western culture and values. For those who had experienced childhood maltreatment and neglect, extremist groups offered a sense of belonging and significance (Kruglanski et al. 2014). However, as individuals began to question their roles, they deployed their agency to change their life’s direction.

The process of leaving extremism involves a complex interplay of emotions, identity conflicts, and the search for new roles. As individuals navigate multiple role identities, they must confront internal conflicts and negative emotions. These processes help shift their master status, engage in anticipatory socialization, and avoid feared possible selves. The study highlights the importance of understanding these dynamics to support individuals in their journey away from extremism and towards a more positive identity. This knowledge is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and counter domestic violent extremism.

To address the growing problem of domestic violent extremism, here are eight concrete actions you can take:

1. Educate Yourself and Others: Learn about the signs of radicalization and the underlying motivations of domestic violent extremism to raise awareness in your community.
2. Promote Inclusive Communities: Foster environments that promote diversity, inclusion, and mutual respect, reducing the appeal of extremist ideologies.
3. Support At-Risk Individuals: Engage with those who may be vulnerable to radicalization, offering support and alternative paths to belonging and purpose.
4. Report Suspicious Activities: If you encounter potential threats or extremist behavior, report them to authorities to help prevent violent actions.
5. Encourage Open Dialogue: Create safe spaces for open and respectful discussions about contentious issues, reducing the polarization that extremists exploit.
6. Support Deradicalization Programs: Advocate for and support programs that help former extremists reintegrate into society and transform their identities.
7. Collaborate with Law Enforcement: Work with local law enforcement to understand and counteract the specific extremist threats in your area.
8. Volunteer with Relevant Organizations: Get involved with organizations dedicated to preventing extremism and supporting victims of radicalization.
9. Promote Mental Health Resources: Ensure access to mental health services for those struggling with identity conflicts and negative emotions, which can contribute to radicalization.
10. Advocate for Policy Changes: Support policies that address the root causes of extremism, such as inequality, discrimination, and lack of social support.

Domestic violent extremism poses a significant and growing threat in the United States, with a dramatic rise in cases and a complex mix of motivations among extremists. Understanding the intricate dynamics of identity transformation is crucial for effective deradicalization efforts.

As individuals navigate their way out of extremist groups, they face significant emotional and identity challenges. However, with the right support and strategies, these individuals can embark on a journey towards a positive and non-extremist identity. By taking these actions, we can collectively work towards reducing the threat of domestic violent extremism and fostering a safer, more inclusive society.

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How can communities better support individuals leaving extremist groups? Leave your suggestions and ideas in the comments!

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